Introduction
A client of ours who asked not to be named implemented several projects that aimed to stabilise communities through the reintegration of former rebels in the Central African Republic (CAR) who were not part of the formal Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR) process. The program consisted of a combination of "life skills training" and "basic professional training courses" at the end of which beneficiaries received an income-generating kit.
The goals of the mid-term and final evaluations of these programmes for our client was to verify the impact of life skills training, basic professional training courses, and income-generating opportunities in reducing the risk of aggressive behaviour among young men and women who had a history of anti-social, often violent behaviour, including joining rebel groups in CAR. The projects included 12,000 beneficiaries in three provinces of the CAR. The project also underscored that one of its aims was to reduce gender-based violence (GBV) in these communities, as this type of violence was often the most direct and visible form of aggression and violence - both verbally and physically.
For the researchers, the interest also lies in finding support in theory and research for the measured changes in behaviour and lives that were reported by beneficiaries and communities alike. In this paper we hope to explore the relationship between poverty, lack of opportunities and perspectives, and political instability and to examine the potential impact of a training and income-generation project in reducing the risk of aggressive behaviour.
The involvement of young men in armed groups in conflicts in the Central African Republic (CAR) has been a concern for many years. Among the many explanations for the lure of joining (such groups for scores of young men, the Frustration-Aggression theory, as (re-)defined by Berkovich (2004) which suggests that individuals who experience frustration (such as poverty and lack of opportunities and perspectives) may engage in aggressive behaviour as a means of coping with that frustration, was the starting point for this paper.
Method
To evaluate the effectiveness of the Community Stabilisation and Violence Reduction (CSVR) project in achieving positive behavioural change of the beneficiaries, a post-intervention survey was administered to the direct and indirect beneficiaries (members of the community who did not participate in the project), as well as the authorities. The survey section to measure the behavioural change consisted of three questions:
- Do you notice a positive change in your behaviour/in the behaviour of the beneficiary?
- Do you believe that you are more proud (feel more self-esteem)/the beneficiary has more pride/self-esteem?
- Do you notice a positive change in your life/in the life of the beneficiary?
The survey was distributed - over two evaluation rounds - administered to a total of 1,594 respondents in three regions of the CAR, including both direct and indirect beneficiaries as well as community leaders and authorities.
| Respondent type | Round 1 (2021) | Round 2 (2022) | TOTAL |
| Direct beneficiaries | 751 | 525 | 1,276 |
| Indirect beneficiaries | 54 | 104 | 158 |
| Local authorities & community leaders | 106 | 54 | 160 |
| TOTAL | 911 | 683 | 1,594 |
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Table 1 - Respondents |
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In addition to the survey, focus group discussions and interviews were conducted with the beneficiaries and community leaders.
Findings
The survey results showed that the outcomes were overwhelmingly positive, with more than 85% of respondents answering the three questions positively. A chi-square tests of independence showed that there was no significant association between gender and the findings and hence gender-differentiated statistics are not reported.
| Direct beneficiaries | Indirect beneficiaries | Authorities/Community leaders | |||||||
| Change in beneficiary's | Round 1 | Round 2 | Average | Round 1 | Round 2 | Average | Round 1 | Round 2 | Average |
| ...BEHAVIOUR | 83.62% | 92.39% | 88.00% | 75.93% | 83.65% | 79.79% | 88.69% | 98.11% | 93.40% |
| ... SELF-ESTEEM | 78.83% | 88.39% | 83.61% | 72.22% | 93.27% | 82.74% | 91.51% | 98.11% | 94.81% |
| ... LIFE | 82.82% | 89.33% | 86.09% | 85.19% | 95.19% | 90.19% | 88.69% | 98.11% | 93.40% |
| Table 2 - Results | |||||||||
The in-depth interviews with community leaders provided further insight into the behavioural changes and one of the most important outcomes of these discussions was that community leaders and authorities also stated that the beneficiaries were no longer interested in joining armed groups, and that none of them had joined the armed groups during the December 2020 renewal of armed conflict.
In the focus group discussions and in-depth interviews both male and female respondents revealed that gender-based violence (GBV) was an issue that was successfully addressed in the Community Stabilisation and Violence Reduction project.
Women - beneficiaries themselves or indirect beneficiaries - reported that, in comparison to the time before the client's intervention, male participants in the projects behaved in noticeably less verbally and physically violent ways towards them and others and that they were able to control their aggressive impulses, in their opinion, as a result of the life skills training, professional training, and income-generating opportunities provided by the projects.
This change in behaviour was also reported by community leaders and authorities, who observed that the beneficiaries were no longer engaging in violence and were instead contributing positively to their communities.
Furthermore, some of the women reported that they now regard these former rebels as "husband material" due to their positive behaviour change. This suggests that providing vocational training programs, income-generating programs, and life skills training can not only improve the lives and behaviour of individuals, but also positively impact the community and relationships within it.
It is nevertheless important to note that addressing GBV requires a comprehensive approach that includes addressing the underlying socio-economic and political issues that contribute to GBV; The Community Stabilisation and Violence Reduction project addressed these underlying issues rather than GBV through its approach which aimed at empowerment of individuals and communities.
Discussion
The findings of this study align with among others the Frustration-Aggression theory, as re-defined by Berkovich (2004), which suggests that individuals who experience frustration (such as poverty and lack of opportunities and perspectives) may engage in aggressive behaviour as a means of coping with that frustration.
Additionally, the findings align with research that suggests that providing vocational training programs for former combatants can improve self-esteem and life satisfaction (Bagnis & Bonnet, 2016), income-generating programs can improve self-esteem and behaviour among former combatants (Nell & Niehaus, 2015) and that people's behaviour and attitudes are shaped by their economic, social and political environment (Galtung, 1969) and self-esteem plays a crucial role in shaping one's behaviour and attitudes (Bandura, 1977).
The idea that poverty, lack of opportunities and perspectives, and political instability can lead to a lack of employment opportunities and financial insecurity, making it difficult for young men to fulfil traditional gender roles and expectations is supported by research in the field of gender and development. Malhotra and colleagues (2015) found that poverty and lack of economic opportunities are major factors that contribute to gender inequality in developing countries. The study argues that poverty and lack of economic opportunities can limit men's ability to fulfil traditional gender roles as providers and protectors, which can lead to feelings of frustration and a lack of a sense of purpose.
Another study by Kabeer (2001) found that men in developing countries often feel a sense of inadequacy and frustration due to their inability to fulfil traditional gender roles as providers and protectors. The study argues that this can lead to a sense of emasculation and a lack of a sense of purpose, which can contribute to feelings of hopelessness and helplessness. Niehaus and colleagues (2015) found that political instability and economic insecurity can contribute to gender-based violence in conflict-affected areas. The study argues that political instability and economic insecurity can limit men's ability to fulfil traditional gender roles as providers and protectors, which can lead to feelings of frustration and a lack of a sense of purpose.
All these studies and theories highlight that there is a link between poverty, lack of opportunities and perspectives, and political instability with men's inability to fulfill traditional gender roles and expectations. These factors can lead to feelings of frustration, helplessness, and hopelessness, which can be a powerful motivator for young men to join armed groups that promise to address these issues.
At the same time, young men who are frustrated with their inability to fulfill traditional gender roles may resort to other forms of violence within their immediate environment as a way to assert their masculinity and dominance over women. Felson and colleagues (2011) suggested that men who are frustrated with their inability to achieve traditional gender roles, such as being the primary provider and protector; research by Connell (2005) suggest that traditional gender roles are often used as a justification for violence against women. These studies and theories highlight that there is a link between the frustration that young men may feel due to their inability to fulfil traditional gender roles and their behaviour towards women.
It is equally important to note that ‘aggressive cues’ were reinforced by the repetitive cycles and the length of the conflict in the Central African Republic, from 2013 onwards. In that year, the beneficiaries were between 10 and 25 years old; their formative years in an environment that saw repeated violence as a model for conflict resolution. The impact of conflict on the development of (social skills in ) children is well documented and although it was not the subject of the evaluation for our client, but it is interesting to note that Widom and colleagues (2014) and Johnson and colleagues (2017) found that men who have a history of child abuse and neglect are more likely to engage in domestic violence as adults.
It is important to note that the relationship between poverty, lack of opportunities, and political instability with men's inability to fulfill traditional gender roles and expectations is complex and influenced by multiple factors. Furthermore, providing vocational training programs, income-generating programs, and life skills training alone may not be enough to solve the complex issues related to the involvement of young men in armed groups in conflicts It requires a comprehensive approach that addresses the underlying socio-economic and political issues that contribute to the conflicts.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this study provides evidence that the Community Stabilisation and Violence Reduction projects were successful in improving the lives of the beneficiaries and at the same time achieving its goal of reducing the risk of marginalised communities engaging in aggressive behaviour.
The findings align with the Frustration-Aggression theory and research on the impact of vocational training programs, income-generating programs, and self-esteem on behaviour. Furthermore, the study suggests that the life skills training, basic professional training courses, and income-generating opportunities provided by the Community Stabilisation and Violence Reduction project had a positive impact on the self-esteem and behaviour of the beneficiaries.
It is, however, important to note that the relationship between poverty, lack of opportunities, and political instability with men's inability to fulfill traditional gender roles and expectations is complex and influenced by multiple factors and therefore, requires a comprehensive approach that addresses the underlying socio-economic and political issues that contribute to the conflicts.
References
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