Introduction
Mali is facing a complex crisis, characterized by ongoing conflict and fragility. The country has experienced numerous security challenges, including inter-communal violence, insurgency, terrorism, and organized crime (OCHA, 2020). The ongoing conflict and insecurity have had a severe impact on the lives and well-being of the people, especially in rural areas (UNDP, 2018). The development of a comprehensive crisis analysis framework is crucial for understanding the underlying causes of the crisis and for designing effective interventions to address them.
In this paper we examine the theoretical underpinnings of Social Capital Theory and the Community Capitals Framework to establish a baseline and later on develop indicators for in-depth crisis analysis research in the country.
Social capital theory has been increasingly used in research as a means to examine the relationships and networks within communities, and how these relationships and networks can impact individuals, groups, and communities. Social Capital Theory, as articulated by Pierre Bourdieu and James Coleman, suggests that social networks and relationships within a community can provide important resources and support during times of crisis. Social capital is defined as the "...features of social organisation, such as networks, norms, and social trust that facilitate cooperation and coordination" (Rasul & Quilley, 2015, p. 2) or as “... the networks, norms, and trust that exist within a society and allow individuals to act collectively for mutual benefit.” (Putnam, 2000). The theory suggests that strong social networks and relationships can allow communities to mobilise resources quickly and effectively in response to crisis situations.
The Community Capitals Framework (CCF), developed by Cornelia Butler Flora and Jan L. Flora, provides a more comprehensive approach to analysing the resources and strengths within a community. Unlike social capital theory, which focuses on social networks and relationships, the CCF expands upon this by considering all of the assets, or "capitals," that a community possesses. These seven forms of capital - natural, cultural, human, social, political, financial, and built capital - are used to understand how each type of capital contributes to the overall social capital of a community.
Natural capital refers to the natural resources available within a community, such as land, water, and forests. Cultural capital refers to the cultural heritage and traditions of a community. Human capital refers to the skills and knowledge of individuals within a community, such as education and training, but also includes health. Social capital refers to the networks and relationships within a community, as discussed in Social Capital Theory. Political capital refers to the power and influence within a community, including the ability to make decisions and shape policies. Financial capital refers to the financial resources available within a community, and built capital encompasses the infrastructure that communities have, such as roads, community centres, or even access to mobile networks and public transport.
The use of social capital theory with the community capitals framework in research in Malian villages will form the baseline and provide the indicators for a wider crisis analysis by allowing the researchers to understand the complex interplay between these various forms of capital, and how they interact to shape a community's ability to respond to crisis situations. For example, a community with strong social capital might be able to quickly mobilise resources in response to a crisis, but this effort might be limited by the lack of financial capital available.
Understanding the interplay between these capitals can inform strategies to strengthen the community's resilience in the face of crisis.
Community capital in Malian villages
The application of the CCF in research in Malian villages can also provide valuable insights into the ways in which communities, with or without external assistance, can build their capacities and resilience in (future) crisis situations. For example, investments in human capital, such as education and training programs, can build the skills and capacities of individuals within the community. By understanding the various capitals within a community and how they can be leveraged to respond to crisis situations, researchers can develop targeted strategies to build resilience and ensure that communities are prepared to respond effectively to future challenges.
Malian villages are often characterised by strong social networks and a high level of social trust. This social capital has been shown to play a critical role in the ability of communities to respond to crisis situations, such as food insecurity and natural disasters (Brouwer, Azzaretti, & te Lindert, 2011).
In Malian villages - and in urban settings alike - each form of capital is critical to the community's ability to respond to crisis situations.
- Natural Capital: Malian villages are often located in areas with limited natural resources, and access to these resources is critical for the survival of the community. Natural capital, such as access to water, fertile land, and forests, is essential for the production of food, fuel, and other necessities.
- Cultural Capital: Cultural capital is the cultural heritage, traditions, and knowledge of a community. In Malian villages, cultural capital is critical to the maintenance of community values and practices, and is often passed down from generation to generation. This cultural capital helps to maintain the social cohesion of the community and is critical to the ability of the community to respond to crisis situations.
- Human Capital: Human capital refers to the skills, knowledge, and experience of individuals within a community. In Malian villages, human capital is critical to the ability of the community to respond to crisis situations, as individuals with specific skills, such as farmers, blacksmiths, and healers, play important roles in maintaining the survival of the community.
- Social Capital: Social capital refers to the networks, norms, and trust that exist within a community. In Malian villages, social capital is critical to the ability of the community to respond to crisis situations, as the strong social networks within the community allow individuals to act collectively for mutual benefit.
- Political Capital: Political capital refers to the political power and influence that individuals and groups have within a community. In Malian villages, political capital is critical to the ability of the community to respond to crisis situations, as individuals and groups with political power and influence are often able to negotiate for resources and support.
- Financial Capital: Financial capital refers to the money, savings, and assets of individuals and groups within a community. In Malian villages, financial capital is critical to the ability of the community to respond to crisis situations, as individuals and groups with financial resources are often able to access resources and support that are not available to those without financial resources.
- Built Capital: Built capital refers to the physical structures and infrastructure within a community, such as houses, schools, and healthcare facilities. In Malian villages, built capital is critical to the ability of the community to respond to crisis situations, as access to physical structures and infrastructure can provide shelter, healthcare, and educational opportunities during times of crisis.
Social Cohesion as a measure of the intangible capitals
The measurement of social cohesion in a community can be difficult as it is an abstract concept that encompasses various dimensions. However, research has established a set of commonly measured dimensions of social cohesion, including trust, collective action norms, belonging, identity, attitudes towards external groups, and civic engagement.
The dimensions of social cohesion allow for a comprehensive understanding of the social capital within a community and how it contributes to community resilience and overall well-being. Trust, collective action norms, belonging, identity, attitudes towards external groups, and civic engagement are key indicators of social cohesion because they reflect the level of trust, cooperation, and collaboration among community members.
These dimensions provide insight into the level of social capital within a community, which has been linked to a variety of positive outcomes such as improved health, better education, higher levels of income, and greater political stability (Putnam, 1993). Additionally, the measurement of these dimensions can also identify areas for improvement, allowing for targeted interventions to enhance social cohesion and resilience.
Furthermore, the integration of social cohesion measurements with the Community Capital Framework (CCF) offers a more comprehensive approach to analysing and addressing community needs in crisis and fragile contexts. The CCF recognizes the interdependence of different forms of capital and the importance of considering multiple forms of capital in order to better understand a community's strengths and resources. By integrating measurements of social cohesion, the CCF is able to provide a more nuanced understanding of the social capital within a community and how it contributes to overall resilience.
- Trust has been considered as a critical aspect of social cohesion and is seen as a cornerstone of social capital. A study by Putnam (2000) found that trust in institutions and individuals is positively correlated with social capital, and social capital in turn is positively correlated with a range of positive outcomes, such as lower crime rates, better health outcomes, and higher levels of political and civic engagement.
- Collective action norms refer to the extent to which members of a community believe that it is important to work together for the common good. A study by Ostrom (1990) found that collective action norms play a critical role in enabling communities to sustainably manage common-pool resources.
- Belonging refers to the extent to which an individual feels a sense of connection to their community and a sense of belonging in it. A study by Bretherton and James (1993) found that a strong sense of belonging is associated with higher levels of social cohesion and a lower risk of conflict.
- Identity refers to the extent to which individuals view themselves as part of a common group and share a sense of identity with others in the community. A study by Vázquez and González (2008) found that a strong sense of community identity is positively associated with social cohesion.
- Attitudes towards external groups refer to the extent to which members of a community view other groups in a positive or negative light. A study by Ostermann et al. (2017) found that positive attitudes towards external groups are associated with higher levels of social cohesion and lower levels of conflict.
- Civic engagement refers to the extent to which individuals are actively involved in community life, including through participation in political and civic activities. A study by Putnam (1995) found that high levels of civic engagement are associated with higher levels of social capital, which in turn is positively correlated with a range of positive outcomes, such as lower crime rates and better health outcomes.
Conclusion
The use of social capital theory and the seven forms of capital in research in Malian villages is a useful tool to provide a baseline for a wider crisis analysis by allowing researchers to understand the existing relationships, networks, and resources within the community. This information can be used to determine the ability of the community to respond to crises, such as food insecurity, natural disasters, or conflict.
The additional analysis of the dimensions of social cohesion can provide important insights into the level of social capital and the strength of social networks in a community. Understanding the level of social cohesion in a community in turn can provide important information for conflict analysis and the design of interventions aimed at improving social cohesion and reducing conflict and to develop strategies to strengthen the community's ability to respond to crisis situations and ensure their resilience in the face of challenges.
NOTE:
This is a first paper on the underpinnings of social capital theory and the community capitals framework. We will follow up once the data is analysed with a paper on the methodology, the operationalisation of the concepts outlined above and (initial) findings.
References
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